The readings of Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi's 'Tabai' al-Istibdad wa-Masari' al-Istibdad' and 'Umm al-Qura' may be classified into two distinct phases. The early 50s to the late 60s articulate state ideologies: nationalism, which is inseparable from the Islamic identity, imperialism and Arab socialism. From the early 70s to the 80s, the Islamic element in Kawakibi's works is acknowledged, but not endorsed and the readings are free of state ideologies. The commentators are well-acquainted with Western discourse, but this does not inform the readings; they are also more critical of the West in general.