The Byzantine Empire was at its peak under the emperor Justinian. It stretched from Ravenna on the Adriatic coast of Italy, through the Balkans, into North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. Ravenna was its latest conquest. To capture it from the Goths, Justinian ordered the famed General Belisarius, who had already won many battles on the eastern front against Persia, to advance against the city.

The Goths were defeated and their king captured in 540. To honor Justinian and his consort Theodora, two large mosaic panels were erected in Ravenna's Church of San Vitale. One showed the emperor in regal robes, his head surrounded with a golden halo to convey his semi-divine nature. Accompanying him were clergy, administrators, and soldiers (see image opposite top). The other showed the empress in imperial robes and a tall crown. With her were her ladies-in-waiting (see image opposite bottom). Mosaics were a favorite artistic medium of the Byzantines, an art form that traces it roots to ancient Rome.

Invincible!

Constantinople, the largest city in Europe with a population at the time of 400,000, considered itself invincible. Triangular in shape, it was surrounded on two sides by water. On the third side, it was protected by a triple system of inner wall, outer wall, and moat. It had ample reserves of drinking water. This was thanks to numerous cisterns, the largest of which was built during Justinian's reign. It also had abundant granaries.

The empire's most celebrated weapon was Greek Fire, an explosive that destroyed wooden ships and siege towers. Just the threat of its use protected the city from attacks by sea (see illustration below). No one knows how Greek Fire was made, as the recipe was a highly guarded secret.

After Justinian's death, the empire began to decline. But it was not an abrupt descent. Rather, it was a matter of contracting, expanding, and then contracting again.

External Enemies

In 626, the Persians, aided by their neighboring allies, lay siege to Constantinople. According to legend, only the intervention of the Virgin...